A shell formulation was developed from a three-dimensional solid. The shell element is an isoparametric element, and has four corner nodes at which there are three displacements and three rotations, independently. Therefore, the element formulation includes the transverse shear deformation and the transverse normal deformation. In addition, the formulation consists of separate components of the mean stress and deviatoric stresses because the Gurson constitutive model for void growth is based ...
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